Cloud Atlas And The Horrible Ordeal Of Timothy Cavendish

Time is â€Å"the indefinite continued progress of existence and events in the past, present and future regarded as a whole† (Oxford Dictionary). David Mitchell uses his novel Cloud Atlas to explore this complicated concept gravely. Even through the way the novel is laid out (in layers with only half of each story given at first), each story noticeably intersects and interacts with shared characters – either in the flesh or the reincarnations of them. Similarly, this layout exhibits an attempt at postmodernist ideas as well as metafictional ideas as the stories and ideas constantly overlap even when they are in different time frames. In Cloud Atlas, the stories and protagonists within â€Å"Half-Lives: The First Luisa Rey Mystery† and â€Å"The Ghastly Ordeal of Timothy Cavendish† further enhance the greater novel’s concept of time through various measures. These measures include the simple use of language, the exploration of reincarnation, the race against time, and memories and how our remembrance of them affects us. Mitchell’s choice of tense and narration exemplifies how time and timelines affect each story. Luisa Rey’s story is told in the present tense in the third person. However, this story also incorporates focalization shifts and point of view changes between characters. For Example, chapter seventeen is told from Sixsmith’s perspective while the chapter following is told from Bill Smoke’s perspective. In Chapter 17, Sixsmith notices that the window of his room is open and that

What Was the Sussex Pledge of 1916

The Sussex Pledge was a promise given by the German Government to the United States of America on May 4, 1916, in response to US demands relating to the conduct of the First World War. Specifically, Germany promised to alter its naval and submarine policy of unrestricted submarine warfare to stop the indiscriminate sinking of non-military ships. Instead, merchant ships would be searched and sunk only if they contained contraband, and then only after safe passage had been provided for the crew and passengers. The Sussex Pledge Issued On March 24, 1916, a German submarine in the English Channel attacked what it thought was a minelaying ship. It was actually a French passenger steamer called The Sussex and, although it didnt sink and limped into port, fifty people were killed. Several Americans were injured and, on April 19th, the US President (Woodrow Wilson) addressed Congress on the issue. He gave an ultimatum: Germany should end attacks on passenger vessels, or face America breaking off diplomatic relations. Germanys Reaction Its a huge understatement to say Germany didnt want America to enter the war on the side of her enemies, and the breaking off of diplomatic relations was a step in this direction. Germany thus responded on May 4th with a pledge, named after the steamer Sussex, promising a change in policy. Germany would no longer sink anything it wanted to at sea, and neutral ships would be protected. Breaking the Pledge and Leading the US into War Germany made many mistakes during World War I, as did all the nations involved, but their greatest after the decisions of 1914 came when they broke the Sussex Pledge. As the war raged on in 1916, the German High Command became convinced that, not only could they break Britain using a full policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, they could do it before America was in a position to fully join the war. It was a gamble, one based on figures: sink x amount of shipping, cripple the UK in y amount of time, establish peace before the US could arrive in z.  Consequently, on February 1, 1917, Germany broke the Sussex Pledge and returned to sinking all enemy craft. Predictably, there was outrage from the neutral nations, who wanted their ships left alone, and something of a relief from Germanys enemies who wanted the US on their side. American shipping began to sink, and these actions contributed heavily to Americas declaration of war on Germany, issued April 6, 1917. But Germany had expect ed this, after all. What they had got wrong was that with the US Navy and the use of the convoy system to protect ships, the German unrestricted campaign could not cripple Britain, and US forces began to be moved freely across the seas. Germany realized they were beaten, made one last throw of the dice in early 1918, failed there, and ultimately asked for a ceasefire. President Wilson  Comments on the Sussex Incident ...I have deemed it my duty, therefore, to say to the Imperial German Government, that if it is still its purpose to prosecute relentless and indiscriminate warfare against vessels of commerce by the use of submarines, notwithstanding the now demonstrated impossibility of conducting that warfare in accordance with what the Government of the United States must consider the sacred and indisputable rules of international law and the universally recognized dictates of humanity, the Government of the United States is at last forced to the conclusion that there is but one course it can pursue; and that unless the Imperial German Government should now immediately declare and effect an abandonment of its present methods of warfare against passenger and freight carrying vessels this Government can have no choice but to sever diplomatic relations with the Government of the German Empire altogether. This decision I have arrived at with the keenest regret; the possibility of the action contemplated I am sure all thoughtful Americans will look forward to with unaffected reluctance. But we cannot forget that we are in some sort and by the force of circumstances the responsible spokesmen of the rights of humanity, and that we cannot remain silent while those rights seem in process of being swept utterly away in the maelstrom of this terrible war. We owe it to a due regard to our own rights as a nation, to our sense of duty as a representative of the rights of neutrals the world over, and to a just conception of the rights of mankind to take this stand now with the utmost solemnity and firmness... Cited from The World War One document archive.

International Currency And International Trade - 1385 Words

International currency basically means the currency that is used and held beyond the borders of the issuing country, not merely for transactions with that country’s residents but also, and importantly, for transactions between nonresidents (Kenen 2009). For a country that have an international currency, it would meet various benefits and costs which could be analyzed from both economic and political dimensions. It has be argued (Cohen 2012)that the main advantages is related to transactions costs, international seigniorage macroeconomic flexibility, political leverage and reputation. With the internationalization of the currency .the domestic currency can be directed used for international trade valuation, payment and settlement. The foreign trade sector can use domestic currency settle the import and export business, the domestic financial Institutions and enterprises can borrow, make up international deficit with domestic currency to reduce the risk of exchange rate. So both the transactions costs in trade and for residents can be reduced. Seigniorage could be counted as revenue for a government when the money that is created is worth more than it costs to produce it, the issuers of an international currency can gain extra seigniorage because foreigners hold large amount of domestic currency in exchange for traded goods and services .And the issuing country raises asset price and creates liquidity premium-interest rate subsidy. The country can enhance its internationalShow MoreRelatedForeign Currency And International Trade1590 Words   |  7 PagesCooperation or Hegemony The main consequence of an exchange rate fluctuation for international trade is the risk for an exporter or an importer that the cost of foreign currency applied in business volumes will differ from the hoped and calculated. An exposition to foreign currency and a currency risk can make additional profits, and not just losses. However, being in an exposition to currency means relying on a case and most of businesspersons prefer not to allow their company being sensitive toRead MoreEco372International Trade and Finance Speech903 Words   |  4 PagesInternational Trade and Finance Speech ECO/372 June 7, 2012 International trade and finance speech Hello ladies and gentlemen hope you day is going well so fair. My name is Linda, I wanted to come out and speak with about the International trade and finance I will be handing out a booklet that show you what I will talking about if you should have an question write the down and I will try address them allRead MorePolitical Factors That Affect International Business1020 Words   |  5 Pagesfactors that affect international business include† (Justin Ervin. Zachary Smith A.2008). One significant political environmental factor that influences international business operation is trade agreements. Countries frequently enter into trade treaties to further facilitate trade between themselves. Case in point, a European Union consisting of countries like France, Germany and Italy where the organizations of these member states can with few legal requirements, these international business haveRead MoreInternational Finance, Exchange Rates And Also Balance Of Payments1650 Words   |  7 PagesIn this paper I will be going over and discussing what international finance, exchange rates and also balance of payments. I will be talking about what they are, what they do, and how they affect us an economy and country. I will be discussing the basic definitions, and the basic concepts of their duties. First I will be going over international finance and the role it plays in our daily lives. Then I will discuss the price differences between items in the United States and Germa ny. I will add andRead MoreWhat Happens When There Is a Surplus of Imports Brought Into the Us1065 Words   |  5 PagesInternational Trade and Finance Speech What happens when there is a surplus of imports into the U S: A surplus of imports is good for consumers but bad for local business. We have to produce and manufacture in order to export. As our export trade shrinks, so does our workforce and economy. The surplus of imported cars for 2012 has exceeded the exportation by $152 billion. Also the shelf life of cars is 1 year. Every year at the end of the cycle the existing models are sold off at huge discountsRead MoreExplain How the International Trade Flows Should Initially Adjust in Response to the Changes in Inflation (Holding Exchange Rates Constant).645 Words   |  3 PagesAssignment #1: The International Financial Environment. Explain how the international trade flows should initially adjust in response to the changes in inflation (holding exchange rates constant). Explain how the international capital flows should adjust in response to the changes in interest rates (holding exchange rates constant). International trade flows are the exchange of goods and services for money between different countries. It is referred to as sales which cross juridical bordersRead MoreCurrency Crisis in China888 Words   |  4 PagesThe Chinese yuan is the official currency of the Peoples Republic of China. It is an emerging currency that some think will vie for an alternative to the US dollar or the Euro as a leading currency in the international foreign exchange markets. The United States is the leading economy in the world and has been for decades. The US dollar is the most used currency in the world. Several countries besides the United States use it as their official or de facto currency. China’s economic policy is basedRead MoreThe United States Macroeconomy867 Words   |  4 Pageseconomic period since the Great Depression of the 1929-1933. Like then, the current economy is linked to several internal concerns, but is also influenced by several external features, mostly revealed by its economic relationships with the various international partners. At this level, it is necessary to understand the national economy as the intersection of national politics, national economic affairs, but also global politics and economy. Today, in the era of globalization, not the United States orRead MoreInternational Trade Simulation and Report1417 Words   |  6 PagesInternational Trade Simulation and Report International trade is the exchange of goods, capital, and services across international borders or territories. In most countries this trade represents a significant share of their (GDP) gross domestic product. This type of trade has political, economic, and social importance to all nations involved. There are many factors surrounding international trade, such as, advantages, limitations, foreign exchange rates, and others. As we review these factors,Read MoreInternational and Global Trade Essay1168 Words   |  5 PagesAs Ron Wyden states, â€Å"Trade wars are not started by countries appealing to respected, independent trade authorities. Rather, trade wars begin when one country decides to violate international trade rules to undercut another country’s industries.† International trade comes from when one country is needy and another country can provide something another country needs. Global Trade, during the recession, fell 20 percent in 2009. In a study conducted after the recession the trade collapse was caused by

Argumentative Essay - Rising Gas Prices Who Is to Blame

Argumentative Essay 18 March 2012 Rising Gas Prices: Who is to blame? Each time a person residing in the United States pulls up to a gas station to fill their tank it costs more money. This is particularly true of the past four years. Many focus the blame on the American Government but there are a multitude of factors causing gasoline prices to be so astronomically high. Middle eastern war, environmental precautions and government all seem to have a hand in the price we pay at the pump. While Obama is campaigning for the upcoming presidential election, many citizens have voiced their opposition to re-electing him into office. The economy’s downward spiral over the last four years has affected his loss of votes and now the†¦show more content†¦If the government decides to continue with the drilling of new sites or expand the Keystone XL Pipeline there are environmental dangers and concerns to follow and still not enough oil production to fuel the countries demand. The importing of oil from foreign coun tries would still be a necessity. For now the prices of gasoline are still on the rise and with use of the oil money future tool prices are sure to continue rising. As it seems in this current economic crisis, consumers need to make their voice heard with the government and hope something will change with the way oil is produced and imported to lower the cost for everyone. Works Cited Yergin, Daniel. â€Å"What’s behind rising gas prices?† The Wallstreet Journal. New York Times, 16 Mar. 2012. Web. Mar. 15 2012. Pfeiffer, Dan. â€Å"Fact Check: All-of-the-Above Approach to American Energy.† The Whitehouse Washington. N.p., 29 Feb. 2012. Web. 15 Mar. 2012. Amadeo, Kimberly. â€Å"Why are gas prices so high?† About.com guide. New York Times Company, 10 Mar. 2012. Web. 16 Mar. 2012. Davenport, Coral. â€Å"Oil Pipeline Presents Dilemma for Obama.† National Journal. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. (2011) Web. 16 Mar. 2012. Degenhardt, Rachel. â€Å"1700 miles of the Keystone XL Pipeline.† ENHESA Flash 1.61 (2011): 5. Unites States Department of State. Web. 14 Mar.Show MoreRelatedPromotional Exam Econs10149 Words   |  41 PagesCSQ1: The Illegal Drug Market 4. 2009 RVHS Year 5 End of Year Exams Paper CSQ1: Challenges of the Agricultural Sector Section B: Essays 1. 2006 SAJC H1 Final Exams: Application of Demand and Supply – Price Control 2. 2008 SRJC H1 Prelims: Market Failure 3. 2008 A Levels H2 Essay: Elasticity of DD and SS 4. 2009 PJC H1 Prelims: Theory of DD and SS, Price Elasticity of DD and SS and Market Failure 5. 2009 HCI H1 Prelims: Market Failure 6. 2009 YJC H1 Prelims:Read MoreIgbo Dictionary129408 Words   |  518 Pageswith a specific dialect although locations are occasionally marked after particular lexical entries. 3. Marks the subdotted vowels with a diaeresis, thus á » ¥ appears as à ¼. 4. Marks tone with bracketed symbols following the word, thus (HL). 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Lebron James Free Essays

Joe Matela Mullins Green/1 April 13, 2012 Rough Draft They inbound the ball, he takes it past mid-court with only 2 seconds left; he dribbles to the three-point line and somehow gets the shot off. It goes in! They win the hard-fought game by nailing the buzzer-beater; this is just one of the 17 game-winning shots that LeBron James has made in his short, eight-year career to give his team the lead in the final seconds of the game. LeBron James is just one of the many athletes that play the exciting game of American Basketball, a fast-paced sport that is extremely entertaining and viewed by an abundance of people through-out the globe. We will write a custom essay sample on Lebron James or any similar topic only for you Order Now There have been, there are, and there will be many individuals who play the game of basketball very well; however, none will measure up against LeBron James. LeBron has been a great basketball player since the very beginning, perhaps the greatest. Some say that James was being scouted since he was in the sixth-grade. LeBron James, overcoming extreme poverty in his early childhood, has always been viewed as one of the greatest basketball players since the very start of his career, leading his high school and two professional teams to the national championship multiple times. Basketball is a fast-paced sport in which there are two teams trying to outscore each other by throwing the basketball into the other teams hoop more times than their opponent, (Thompson 143). Basketball has developed drastically since it was invented over a century ago by a middle-school physical education teacher, (Safra 941). This sport originated in Springfield, Massachusetts in 1891 by a PE teacher named James Naismith, (Safra 941). The goal was simple; outscore your opponent by making more shots than them, while at the same time, preventing the other team from scoring, (Safra 942). However, modern basketball consists mainly of enormous athletes performing flashy dunks, tough play in the post, and down-town shots for three points. Professional basketball consists of 4 twelve-minute quarters, whereas college consists of 2 twenty-minute halves. There are five people from each team on the court at once, therefore there are five positions. One of these five positions is called the, â€Å"Small Forward. † The Small Forward is responsible for scoring points by cutting to the basket and using dribble penetration, and on defense seeks rebounds and steals. There are few Small Forwards that preform at a high level of intensity every night; LeBron James is one of these elite few. LeBron James was, â€Å"born December 30th, 1984,† (â€Å"LeBron James† 1), in Akron, Ohio, (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). At the time, the population in Akron was around 225,000 people, (Bissinger 7). â€Å"His mother, Gloria, gave birth to James when she was just 16 years old and became his biggest fan,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player†. Newsmakers 1). â€Å"He never knew his biological father, who was reputed to be a stellar street-basketball player,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. Newsmakers 1). The most stable male influence in his early life was his mom’s boyfriend, Eddie Jackson, who James sometimes refers to as his dad. However, in 2002, Eddie Jackson was sentenced to three years in prison for mail and mortgage fraud, (â€Å"LeBron Jame s: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). James did not have an easy upbringing. His mother switched jobs and houses often. â€Å"By the time James was five years old, they had moved seven times,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). He missed large stretches of elementary school and spent 18 months living with a foster family, (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). â€Å"James’ basketball coach at the time, Frankie Walker, offered to school LeBron and give him a nice home until his mother Gloria was able to afford to take care of him,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). During these tough times, LeBron formed an immense admiration towards his mother. During an Interview, James said, â€Å"My mother is my everything. Always has been. Always will be,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American†1). â€Å"Toward the end of elementary school, LeBron found a true stabilizing influence in his life: basketball,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). He first started playing basketball when he was about nine years old with a team called the Hornets at the Summit Lake Community Center (Bissinger 17). In 8th grade, LeBron joined an Amateur Athletic Union team called the, â€Å"Shooting Stars,† coached by Dru Joyce, a graduate from Ohio University, (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). Also on the team was Coach Dru’s son, nicknamed, â€Å"Little Dru,† who would later become one of LeBron’s best friends (Bissinger 20). The Shooting Stars would continue on to win a handful of national tournament catching the attention of many recruiters. James’ and his team were later invited to a private Catholic school, St. Vincent- St. Mary high school in Akron, Ohio, (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). Even Keith Dambrot put Coach Dru on the staff because of what he did with the, â€Å"Fab Four,† on the Shooting Stars, (Bissinger 72). LeBron made an instant impact as a high school player. â€Å"As a freshman, he led the St. Vincent- St. Mary Fighting Irish to a 27-0 record and the Ohio state basketball championship,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). Not only did he become the school’s star basketball player but he also played football for three years and maintained solid grades,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American 2). As a sophomore in football, he caught 42 passes for 840 yards and 11 touchdowns (Freedman 15). Such statistics ignite interest in college recruiters. In basketball, he was a team player, meaning, he spent as much time passing the ball to set someone else’s shot up as he did setting up his own shot. LeBron James was by far the best player on the team; he knew it, and so did his team. â€Å"They understood I was the best player on the team if we needed to get a point, but I still needed them to get the ball to me. They were adamant that this was a team, ‘You can’t do this without us, and we can’t do this without you. ’† (Bissinger 206). By his junior year, James had caught the attention of basketball fans across the country, (â€Å"LeBron James: American† 2). â€Å"In 2001, during the summer leading up to his junior year, James was invited to attend informal workouts at, ‘Hoops the Gym,’ where Michael Jordan trained,† (Freedman 29). Sports Illustrated put him on the cover of their magazine in 2002, making him the eighth high school basketball player to be on the cover in 48 years, (â€Å"LeBron James: American† 2). LeBron was also named, â€Å"High School Boys Basketball Player of the Year,† by Parade magazine after both his junior and senior year, (â€Å"LeBron James: American† 2). By the time he was a senior, his nickname was, â€Å"King James,† and they were making little LeBron James bobble-heads. â€Å"James considered declaring himself eligible for the draft as a junior, but he decided to finish high school and declared ligibility for the 2003 NBA draft,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American† 1). â€Å"St. Vincent- St. Mary’s basketball team won the Division III state championship three of the four years James attended the school: his freshman, sophomore, and senior year,† (Bissinger 120). During his high school career, he played in three total All-Star High School basketball games, (Freedman 55). Originally, the team with the worst record in the NBA got the first draft pick. When the NBA suspected teams of putting no effort into a nothing–to-lose season, they decided to create a lottery, (Freedman 54). The teams that did not make it into the playoffs got put on a ping pong ball and were randomly selected, thus, choosing the order of the draft, (Freedman 54). â€Å"In the 2002-2003 season, the Cleveland Cavaliers went 17-65, tying the Denver Nuggets. They were arguably the worst team in the NBA,† (Freedman 53). So it was no surprise to anyone when LeBron James was the number one draft pick, being drafted by the Cleveland Cavaliers. â€Å"The Cavaliers viewed him as a savior to their franchise; the league greeted him as a marketing tool,† (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. Newsmakers 1). LeBron entered the league signing a 4-year contract for 12. 96 million dollars, (Freedman 67). In his first professional game, he scored 25 points, passed for 6 assists and gathered 6 rebounds against the Sacramento Kings, (Freedman 69). Needless to say, LeBron James made a major impact for his team in his rookie year. At the end of the season he was named, â€Å"Rookie of the Year in 2003,† (â€Å"LeBron James† 1). â€Å"Soon after his rookie season, James was issued an invitation to join the U. S. Olympic team for the games in Greece,† (Freedman 81). His first six years in the league, James had already led the Cavaliers to the Finals and earned MVP honors twice while winning the MVP award in the All-Star Game twice as well, (â€Å"LeBron James: American Basketball player. † Newsmakers 1). â€Å"He has appeared in 627 regular season games and started 626 of those games, averaging 27. 7 points, 7. 1 rebounds, 1. 72 steals and 40. 1 minutes, great statistics by most basketball experts’ standards,† (â€Å"LeBron’ James† 1). He has won the, â€Å"Eastern Conference Player of the Week,† title a league record 31-times (â€Å"LeBron James†1). He is, unarguably, a great overall player of the game basketball. How to cite Lebron James, Essay examples

Marijuana Prohibition for Substance Abuse-myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Why Marijuana Should Not Be Legalized Answer: Marijuana prohibition is not a burden to the society; instead, it is a benefit. Just like alcohol, marijuana has negative impacts and it more related to crime and addiction (Hopfer, 2014). If the legislature agrees with the legalization of marijuana, they must be ready to face the consequences of their actions such as residents driving under the influence of the drug and even much worse like dealers engaging in other harder drugs. Legalization advocates have opened up discussions with the law regarding the medicinal use of the drug, but there's not enough evidence to show the benefits are more than the risks. Some anecdotal evidence suggests that most of those discussions are facilitated by people who just want to get high. According to research done by United Nations, marijuana substance is the second from alcohol to be found in the bodies of drivers involved in fatal accidents. The researchers also found out that more than 3.8% of the planet's population uses the substance. According to US Drug Enforcement Administration, most of the criminal arrested in 2005 were tested positive for marijuana. My question is, why would anyone feel any need to make such a substance legal and socially acceptable? Most pot smokers argue that marijuana makes them relax and are more aggressive (Cooper, and Haney, 2010). Surprisingly, research on the link between marijuana and aggression is mixed as it seems to make people relax but all the same, it causes paranoia and anxiety problem making the users a threat to themselves or others. Studies show that marijuana harms both the teenage and an adult brain (Ammerman, Ryan, Adelman, and Committee on Substance Abuse, 2015). What I am mostly concerned about, is the belief of most teenagers that marijuana is harmless drug and the rising population the teenagers using this drug. Dozens of research show that the drug affects the brain of a teenager and their IQ is reduced by 8% if they continue to use it to adulthood. Even if they stop using the drug at a later age, they may recover what they had lost. Students as young as 15 years old and above using marijuana are more likely to do worse or drop out of school, earn less when they become of age and have unsatisfying career according to research done by Dr. Ed Gogek, an author of Marijuana Debunked. I am sure that no parent wants this for their children, but most of the school's teacher says that marijuana is one of their main problems. Advocates campaigning for the legalization of marijuana claim that this will result to unclogging the prisons but justice department argue that most criminals found in possession of marijuana were also charged with other serious offenses. They also claim that tax collected from marijuana business will bring more profit to the country, but this is just misleading stories as they do not tell us about the legalization cost(Li, Brady, DiMaggio, Lusardi, Tzong, and Li, 2011). The taxes will not come anywhere near what marijuana takes from the society, i.e., lost productivity, health cost and criminal injustice among other losses. Marijuana affects the health of its uses negatively; it overreacts part of the brain that has high receptors causing the high' feeling (Pacula, 2010). The short-term effect includes; changes in mood, impaired memory, hallucinations, psychosis and impaired body movement while the long-term impact includes; a problem in child development during and after pregnancies, decline in IQ levels and impaired brain development. Theres no medication currently available to treat marijuana. Though behavioral support including therapy and motivational incentives has shown to be effective they still at some time are unable to reduce withdrawal symptoms and prevent relapse (Hopfer, 2014). Long-term users trying to quit mostly report mild symptoms such as cravings and grouchiness making quitting difficult. In conclusion, marijuana is harmful drug no matter what the drugs advocates say and not the kind we put stamps for approval. No community/ legislature should allow legalization of the drug no matter what, as it benefits only two groups, i.e., seller and buyer. For the rest of us making sure it stays illegal is the best option. References Li, M.C., Brady, J.E., DiMaggio, C.J., Lusardi, A.R., Tzong, K.Y. and Li, G., 2011. Marijuana use and motor vehicle crash. Epidemiologic reviews,34(1), pp.65-72. Ammerman, S., Ryan, S., Adelman, W.P. and Committee on Substance Abuse, 2015. The impact of marijuana policies on youth: clinical, research, and legal update.Pediatrics,135(3), pp.e769-e785. Pacula, R.L., 2010. Examining the impact of marijuana legalization on marijuana consumption. Hopfer, C., 2014. Implications of marijuana legalization for adolescent substance use.Substance Abuse,35(4), pp.331-335. Hopfer, C., 2014. Marijuana legalization: impact on physicians and public health.Annual review of medicine,67, pp.453-466. Cooper, Z.D., and Haney, M., 2010. Opioid antagonism enhances marijuana's effects in heavy marijuana smokers.Psychopharmacology,211(2), pp.141-148.

Search and Seizure free essay sample

As the United States formed as a republic its need to form laws to protect its people became an evident need. Along with the powers to be at control of these laws, there were also limitations on what the government could and could not do to protect the people from the government as well. One of these controlling factors is the Fourth Amendment, which protects our citizens and visitors from an array of items. A few in particular would be; right to privacy, search, and seizure. The Fourth Amendment also sets the tone for how arrests are affected and how reasonableness is weighed on heavily. The Fourth Amendment grants American citizens protection from illegal searches and seizures. The Fourth Amendment is designed to protect the right to privacy and freedom from arbitrary invasions. In order to seek restitution for a violation of the Fourth Amendment, the plaintiff must have standing. Standing requires that the plaintiff had an expectation of privacy at the searched location. We will write a custom essay sample on Search and Seizure or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Standing requires that both the subjective and the objective tests are met. The subjective test requires that the plaintiff actually expected privacy while the objective test checks whether the plaintiff would have expected privacy (Fourth Amendment). The Fourth Amendment protects against unlawful searches and seizures, but what exactly are a search and a seizure? As per the Legal Dictionary search and seizure is an â€Å"examination of a persons premises (residence, business or vehicle) by law enforcement officers looking for evidence of the commission of a crime, and the taking (seizure and removal) of articles of evidence (such as controlled narcotics, a pistol, counterfeit bills, and a blood-soaked blanket). The basic question is whether the search and seizure were unreasonable under the 4th Amendment to the Constitution (applied to the states under the 14th Amendment), which provides: The right of people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated. Thus, searches and seizures must be under the authority of a search warrant or when the officer has solid facts that give him/her probable cause to believe there was evidence of a specific crime on the premises but no time to get a warrant. Evidence obtained in violation of the Constitution is not admissible in court, nor is evidence traced through such illegal evidence. † Once a search and seizure of a premise and property has been completed, it is the job of law enforcement to gain the status of probable cause to affect an arrest on the individual(s) for crimes related to the investigation. An arrest as defined to The Legal Dictionary is â€Å"to take or hold a suspected criminal with legal authority, as by a law enforcement officer. An arrest may be made legally based on a warrant issued by a court after receiving a sworn statement of probable cause to believe there has been a crime committed by this person, for an apparent crime committed in the presence of the arresting officer, or upon probable cause to believe a crime has been committed by that person. † Arrest defined by Utah State Code reads as follows: 77-7-2. Arrest by peace officers. A peace officer may make an arrest under authority of a warrant or may, without warrant, arrest a person: (1) (a) for any public offense committed or attempted in the presence of any peace officer; and (b) as used in this Subsection (1), presence includes all of the physical senses or any device that enhances the acuity, sensitivity, or range of any physical sense, or records the observations of any of the physical senses; (2) when the peace officer has reasonable cause to believe a felony or a class. A misdemeanor has been committed and has reasonable cause to believe that the person arrested has committed it; (3) when the peace officer has reasonable cause to believe the person has committed a public offense, and there is reasonable cause for believing the person may: (a) flee or conceal himself to avoid arrest; (b) destroy or conceal evidence of the commission of the offense; or (c) injure another person or damage property belonging to another person; (4) when the peace officer has reasonable cause to believe the person has committed the offense of failure to disclose identity under Section 76-8-301. When the peace officer has reasonable cause to believe that the person is an alien: (a) subject to a civil removal order issued by an immigration judge; (b) regarding whom a civil detainer warrant has been issued by the federal Department of Homeland Security; or (c) who has been charged or convicted in another state with one or more aggravated felonies as defined by 8 U. S. C. Sec. 1101(a)(43). Another exception to requiring a warrant lands within the â€Å"reasonableness† requirement. The United States Supreme Court has attempted to balance the reality of police work and the time to complete a warrant with the freedom interests of the public. If an officer is always required to pursue a warrant, the suspect may have time to destroy the evidence or hide it outside the search parameters of the warrant. On the other hand, never requiring a warrant could get out of hand with police doing random searches on your property. Seven categories to determine if a warrantless search, seizure, or arrest is reasonable were created: No warrant is required for a felony arrest in a public place; No warrant is required for searches incident to lawful arrests; Automobiles may be stopped if an officer possesses reasonable suspicion that the suspect violated a traffic law; If an officer has reasonable suspicion that the suspect is participating, or about to participate, in criminal activity, the officer may frisk the person for weapons; If exigent circumstances arise; At fixed roadside locations, it is alright to have a brief seizure to ascertain the legality of citizens; And if the officer is acting upon â€Å"good faith† (Reasonableness, 2014). All of these play a large part in enforcing law in the United States. As the law has many definitions, there are many parts of the law that are affected by these rules and guidelines. One in particular is the stop and frisk that occurs frequently in law enforcement. Fo r this action the officer must reasonably believe that the individual may be armed with a weapon. The frisk is confined to a suspects outer clothing when either a bulge in the clothing or the outline of the weapon is visible. The search is commonly called a pat down, and any further search requires probable cause to believe the suspect will commit or has committed a crime. The limited right to stop and frisk is intended to halt the practice of random searches of people in hopes of finding evidence of criminal activity. Another scrutinized part of search and seizure is the automobile search exception. Law enforcement is routinely stopping vehicle on traffic related violations. On some stops officers come across situations that lead them to believe that illegal activity is or will be occurring and a further investigation is accomplished. Most times during a traffic stop plain view  and plain smell play a large part in a deeper investigation. The courts have held that due to the fact that an automobile is mobile and has the ability to drive away it is not protected under the normal circumstances of obtaining a warrant for the search as a house or business. The vehicle is subject to search by officers in situations where probable cause can be met. Another situation that occurs on vehicle stops is the lengthening of the stop for the investigation. An officer must have reasonable suspicion of illegal activity beyond the reason of the initial stop to widen the scope of the traffic stop and detain beyond the normal traffic stop time frame. The right to privacy does apply to the vehicle as to the officer can’t cross the threshold of the vehicles interior to gain evidence, all seen or smelled instances must be seen or smelled from the exterior of the car, unless consent to search is provided by the driver. This consent can also be revoked by the driver at any time during the search. The use of canines has also proven to be an effective tool to gain entry into a vehicle for searches. Border patrol has been in the news lately, especially after the passing of the Patriot Act bill. Border patrols have an exception to the search and seizure clause within the Fourth Amendment. Border patrols are still governed by rules and do not have free reign to do as they please. Border searches generally fall into one of two categories: routine or non-routine. A routine stop is usually conducted at the border and consists of limited intrusion. A non-routine stop is usually conducted on reasonable suspicion and will vary in techniques and intrusion. The provision allows the border patrols to interrogate any alien as to their right to remain in the United States; to arrest any alien attempting to enter the United States in violation to the law; to board and search for aliens within a reasonable distance from a border; and to make arrests (Border Search, 2014). The Fourth Amendment is a very important part of our society and covers a large spectrum of items to protect individual’s rights and govern how law enforcement can perform their duties.  Without the Fourth Amendment we would find ourselves living in a very different place, a place where the law rules and individuals were subject to unfair search seizure and from this unlawful arrests and the right to privacy would be nonexistent. Search and Seizure free essay sample As the United States formed as a republic its need to form laws to protect its people became an evident need. Along with the powers to be at control of these laws, there were also limitations on what the government could and could not do to protect the people from the government as well. One of these controlling factors is the Fourth Amendment, which protects our citizens and visitors from an array of items. A few in particular would be; right to privacy, search, and seizure. The Fourth Amendment also sets the tone for how arrests are affected and how reasonableness is weighed on heavily. The Fourth Amendment grants American citizens protection from illegal searches and seizures. The Fourth Amendment is designed to protect the right to privacy and freedom from arbitrary invasions. In order to seek restitution for a violation of the Fourth Amendment, the plaintiff must have standing. Standing requires that the plaintiff had an expectation of privacy at the searched location. We will write a custom essay sample on Search and Seizure or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Standing requires that both the subjective and the objective tests are met. The subjective test requires that the plaintiff actually expected privacy while the objective test checks whether the plaintiff would have expected privacy (Fourth Amendment). The Fourth Amendment protects against unlawful searches and seizures, but what exactly are a search and a seizure? As per the Legal Dictionary search and seizure is an â€Å"examination of a persons premises (residence, business or vehicle) by law enforcement officers looking for evidence of the commission of a crime, and the taking (seizure and removal) of articles of evidence (such as controlled narcotics, a pistol, counterfeit bills, and a blood-soaked blanket). The basic question is whether the search and seizure were unreasonable under the 4th Amendment to the Constitution (applied to the states under the 14th Amendment), which provides: The right of people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated. Thus, searches and seizures must be under the authority of a search warrant or when the officer has solid facts that give him/her probable cause to believe there was evidence of a specific crime on the premises but no time to get a warrant. Evidence obtained in violation of the Constitution is not admissible in court, nor is evidence traced through such illegal evidence. † Once a search and seizure of a premise and property has been completed, it is the job of law enforcement to gain the status of probable cause to affect an arrest on the individual(s) for crimes related to the investigation. An arrest as defined to The Legal Dictionary is â€Å"to take or hold a suspected criminal with legal authority, as by a law enforcement officer. An arrest may be made legally based on a warrant issued by a court after receiving a sworn statement of probable cause to believe there has been a crime committed by this person, for an apparent crime committed in the presence of the arresting officer, or upon probable cause to believe a crime has been committed by that person. † Arrest defined by Utah State Code reads as follows: 77-7-2. Arrest by peace officers. A peace officer may make an arrest under authority of a warrant or may, without warrant, arrest a person: (1) (a) for any public offense committed or attempted in the presence of any peace officer; and (b) as used in this Subsection (1), presence includes all of the physical senses or any device that enhances the acuity, sensitivity, or range of any physical sense, or records the observations of any of the physical senses; (2) when the peace officer has reasonable cause to believe a felony or a class/ A misdemeanor has been committed and has reasonable cause to believe that the person arrested has committed it; (3) when the peace officer has reasonable cause to believe the person has committed a public offense, and there is reasonable cause for believing the person may: (a) flee or conceal himself to avoid arrest; (b) destroy or conceal evidence of the commission of the offense; or (c) injure another person or damage property belonging to another person; (4) when the peace officer has reasonable cause to believe the person has committed the offense of failure to disclose identity under Section 76-8-301. When the peace officer has reasonable cause to believe that the person is an alien: (a) subject to a civil removal order issued by an immigration judge; (b) regarding whom a civil detainer warrant has been issued by the federal Department of Homeland Security; or (c) who has been charged or convicted in another state with one or more aggravated felonies as defined by 8 U. S. C. Sec. 1101(a)(43). Another exception to requiring a warrant lands within the â€Å"reasonableness† requirement. The United States Supreme Court has attempted to balance the reality of police work and the time to complete a warrant with the freedom interests of the public. If an officer is always required to pursue a warrant, the suspect may have time to destroy the evidence or hide it outside the search parameters of the warrant. On the other hand, never requiring a warrant could get out of hand with police doing random searches on your property. Seven categories to determine if a warrantless search, seizure, or arrest is reasonable were created: No warrant is required for a felony arrest in a public place; No warrant is required for searches incident to lawful arrests; Automobiles may be stopped if an officer possesses reasonable suspicion that the suspect violated a traffic law; If an officer has reasonable suspicion that the suspect is participating, or about to participate, in criminal activity, the officer may frisk the person for weapons; If exigent circumstances arise; At fixed roadside locations, it is alright to have a brief seizure to ascertain the legality of citizens; And if the officer is acting upon â€Å"good faith† (Reasonableness, 2014). All of these play a large part in enforcing law in the United States. As the law has many definitions, there are many parts of the law that are affected by these rules and guidelines. One in particular is the stop and frisk that occurs frequently in law enforcement. For this action the officer must reasonably believe that the individual may be armed with a weapon. The frisk is confined to a suspects outer clothing when either a bulge in the clothing or the outline of the weapon is visible. The search is commonly called a pat down, and any further search requires probable cause to believe the suspect will commit or has committed a crime. The limited right to stop and frisk is intended to halt the practice of random searches of people in hopes of finding evidence of criminal activity. Another scrutinized part of search and seizure is the automobile search exception. Law enforcement is routinely stopping vehicle on traffic related violations. On some stops officers come across situations that lead them to believe that illegal activity is or will be occurring and a further investigation is accomplished. Most times during a traffic stop plain view nand plain smell play a large part in a deeper investigation. The courts have held that due to the fact that an automobile is mobile and has the ability to drive away it is not protected under the normal circumstances of obtaining a warrant for the search as a house or business. The vehicle is subject to search by officers in situations where probable cause can be met. Another situation that occurs on vehicle stops is the lengthening of the stop for the investigation. An officer must have reasonable suspicion of illegal activity beyond the reason of the initial stop to widen the scope of the traffic stop and detain beyond the normal traffic stop time frame. The right to privacy does apply to the vehicle as to the officer can’t cross the threshold of the vehicles interior to gain evidence, all seen or smelled instances must be seen or smelled from the exterior of the car, unless consent to search is provided by the driver. This consent can also be revoked by the driver at any time during the search. The use of canines has also proven to be an effective tool to gain entry into a vehicle for searches. Border patrol has been in the news lately, especially after the passing of the Patriot Act bill. Border patrols have an exception to the search and seizure clause within the Fourth Amendment. Border patrols are still governed by rules and do not have free reign to do as they please. Border searches generally fall into one of two categories: routine or non-routine. A routine stop is usually conducted at the border and consists of limited intrusion. A non-routine stop is usually conducted on reasonable suspicion and will vary in techniques and intrusion. The provision allows the border patrols to interrogate any alien as to their right to remain in the United States; to arrest any alien attempting to enter the United States in violation to the law; to board and search for aliens within a reasonable distance from a border; and to make arrests (Border Search, 2014). The Fourth Amendment is a very important part of our society and covers a large spectrum of items to protect individual’s rights and govern how law enforcement can perform their duties.  Without the Fourth Amendment we would find ourselves living in a very different place, a place where the law rules and individuals were subject to unfair search seizure and from this unlawful arrests and the right to privacy would be nonexistent. Search and Seizure free essay sample Rules for searches conducted in plain smell are complex and varied based on the circumstances and location of the search. Under the plain smell doctrine, an officer can use his sense of smell as probable cause to search if there is an articulable belief that the origination of the odor is an illegal substance, or if it indicates an exigent circumstance. Plain smell is a principle under the plain view rule, which basically states that evidence in plain view of an officer is not protected by the Fourth Amendment, as â€Å"seeing† the evidence in that capacity does not constitute a â€Å"search†. For the plain view doctrine to apply for discoveries, the following requirements must be met (Horton v. California, (1990) 496 U. S. 128,136): 1. The officer’s observation of the evidence must be lawful, meaning the officer had a legal right to be at the location, or the suspect did not have a reasonable expectation of privacy in the location, 2. We will write a custom essay sample on Search and Seizure or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The officer must have a lawful right of access to the object, and 3. The officer must have probable cause to believe the object is evidence of a crime. Plain smell falls under the â€Å"probable cause† prong of the plain view rule and would be considered circumstantial evidence, as determining the existence of something based on smell can only be inferred until the actual the object is seen and verified. Plain smell may also fall under the doctrine of exigent circumstances if there is an urgent need for an officer to take action based on the totality of the circumstances surrounding the suspect odor. (People v. Duncan (1986) 42 Cal. 3d 91, 103). In this case, the officer must believe the threat would have materialized before a warrant could be obtained. For example, a Meth lab or PCP lab might be considered exigent circumstances, as the chemicals used in the production of those substances are highly volatile and could explode. An officer relying on plain smell as probable cause should always attempt to obtain other supporting evidence to ensure the validity of his search under the Fourth Amendment, otherwise it may not hold up under close scrutiny. DISCUSSION Warranted searches based on plain smell: There have been numerous arrest warrants issued based on the principle of plain smell. However, there is usually other evidence, in conjunction with the plain smell evidence, to support the warrant request. In Taylor v. United States, (1932) 286 U. S. 1, 6, the court held that odors alone do not authorize a search without a warrant. In Johnson v. United States, (1948) 333 U. S. 0, 13, the court interpreted it further by saying that â€Å"if the presence of odors is testified to before a magistrate, and he finds the affiant qualified to know the odor, and it is one sufficiently distinctive to identify a forbidden substance, this Court has never held such a basis insufficient to justify issuance of a search warrant. † In essence, the odor plus the ability and experience to identify the odor as a criminal substance can be adequate to satisfy the request for a warrant. However, in most cases of plain smell, there is more than jus t odor presented as probable cause to obtain a warrant. The courts strongly support warranted searches over warrantless ones, indicating that â€Å"in a doubtful or marginal case, a search under a warrant may be sustainable where without one it would fall. † (Jones v. United States (1960) 362 U. S. 257, 270). Warrantless searches based on plain smell: Most challenges to searches conducted in plain smell arise from warrantless searches. The most common warrantless searches appear to be vehicle searches based on the smell of drugs. As with any warrantless search, â€Å"the burden to show proper justification for these searches rests on the prosecution. (Badillo v. Superior Court, 46 Cal. 2d 269, 272 [294 P. 2d 23]. ) United States v. Ross, (1982) 456 US 798 allows officers, with probable cause, to search a vehicle and any containers therein without a warrant. Many vehicle searches are based on plain smell—officers smell drugs or alcohol on the driver or an occupant, or they smell it inside the vehicle at the time of the car stop. The smell of alcohol on a driver’s breath or in the vehicle, which is easily identifiable to most officers, gives probable cause to search. The smell of drugs can be trickier. An officer must have the experience to know what a drug smells like before he will have probable cause to search. (Johnson v. United States, supra). Marijuana is fairly common and well known to law enforcement, so it would be easy for an officer to articulate his probable cause. Other drugs may be less familiar, especially to an unseasoned officer, or an officer that has not been exposed to cases involving specific types of illegal substances, therefore making it more difficult to use plain smell as probable cause to earch. As for using the plain smell doctrine as probable cause for any other type of warrantless search, odor can be sufficient, depending on the circumstances, but it is usually not enough. In many cases, odor may be the initial catalyst for the officer to decide to investigate, but normally there needs to be supportive evidence, such as plain view or strong circumstantial evidence to justify a warrantless search. (People v. Shandloff, (1985) 170 Cal. App. 3d 3 72, 381; People v. Divito (1984) 152 Cal. App. 3d. 1, 14) Usually, plain smell is just one of several factors that, as a totality, can add up to probable cause. Exigent circumstance is another situation in which odor alone may be probable cause enough to search. These circumstances can arise from a lot of factors, such as the strong smell of ether, possibly indicating a volatile drug lab, or the smell of smoke from a building indicating a fire, or even the smell of decomposition, possibly indicating a dead body. In these situations, an officer may have probable cause to conduct a search in plain smell. The fruits of the search would be admissible if the search was legal. (People v. Stegman (1985) 164 Cal. App. 3d. 936; People v. Duncan, supra). The United States Supreme Court ruled that the legality of an entry based on exigent circumstances depends on whether it was objectively reasonable under the circumstances. It also ruled that a police action will be deemed objectively reasonable if the need for it outweighed its intrusiveness. (Illinois v. Lidster, (2004) 540 US 419, 427). In judging reasonableness, we look to the gravity of the public concerns served by the seizure, the degree to which the seizure advances public interest, and the severity of the interference with individual liberty. † (Id. at p. 427. ) Conclusion: It is clear that the plain smell doctrine can be difficult to use as the sole reason for probable cause to search. The protections afforded us by the Fourth Amendment are interpreted and defined mainly by case law, which can create a lot of confusion, as pu blic policy and changes in our laws can make it difficult to stay informed. For instance, with some states passing laws to decriminalize small amounts of marijuana, searches conducted in plain smell with regards to marijuana are now being considered as lacking in probable cause. In Massachusetts, the state Supreme Court recently issued a decision (Commonwealth v. Benjamin Cruz (2011) 459 Mass 459, 469) which states in part â€Å"by mandating that possession of such a small quantity of marijuana become a civil violation, not a crime, the voters intended to treat offenders who possess one ounce or less of marijuana differently from perpetrators of drug crimes. Articulable facts, then, must demonstrate a suspicion that the defendant possessed more than one ounce of marijuana, because possession of one ounce or less of marijuana is not a crime. † This basically means that officers in Massachusetts will have to be able to determine if they smell more than an ounce of marijuana in order to use the plain smell doctrine as probable cause. Even though this is not binding case law in California, it could be persuasive and have far reaching ramifications.